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The operating system

The operating system

In computer science, operating system or in English: the operating system or OS is a software system that served to make the control and management of hardware and basic system operations, including the execution of software applications such as word processing programs and web browsers.
In general, the Operating System is the software on the first layer is placed on the computer's memory when the computer is turned on. While other software is run after the operating system is running, and the OS will perform core public services for that software. Common core services such as access to the disk, memory management, task scheduling, and user interfaces. So that each software no longer have a common core tasks, because it can be served and performed by the operating system. Sections of code that perform core tasks and general called the "kernel" an Operating System.
Table of contents
[Hide]
• 1 Introduction
• 2 common core services
• 3 Operating System currently
• 4 Process
o 4.1 Status Process
• 5 See also
• 6 External links

[Edit] Introduction
Typically, the term is often addressed Operating System to all software included in the package with your computer system before the software applications installed. In computer science, operating system or in English: the operating system or OS is a software system that served to make the control and management of hardware and basic system operations, including the execution of software applications such as word processing programs and web browsers.
In general, the Operating System is the software on the first layer is placed on the computer's memory when the computer is turned on. While other software is run after the operating system is running, and the OS will perform core public services for that software. Common core services such as access to the disk, memory management, task scheduling, and user interfaces. So that each software no longer have a common core tasks, because it can be served and performed by the operating system. Sections of code that perform core tasks and the general is called the "kernel" of a Operating System
If the computer system is divided into layers, then the operating system is the link between the hardware layer and the software layer. Beyond that, the Operating System perform all important tasks in the computer, and ensure that different applications can run simultaneously smoothly. Operating System ensure other software applications can use the memory, input and output to other equipment, and have access to the file system. When multiple applications running simultaneously, then the Operating System set skedule right, so far as possible all running processes get enough time to use the processor (CPU) and do not interfere with each other.

In many cases, the operating system provides a library of standard functions, which other applications can call functions, so that in any new program, it is not necessary to make these functions from scratch.

Operating systems generally consist of several parts:
1. Boot mechanisms, namely putting the kernel into memory
2. Kernel, the core of an operating system
3. Command Interpreter or shell, which reads input from the user
4. Libraries, which provide a collection of basic functions and standards that can be called by other applications
5. Driver to interact with external hardware, as well as to control them.

Some operating system allows only one application running at a time (eg DOS), but most of the new operating system allows multiple applications to run simultaneously at the same time. Operating systems are referred to as Multi-tasking Operating System (eg UNIX family of operating systems). Some Operating Systems are very large and complex, and their input depending on the user input, while the other Operating Systems are very small and are made with the assumption that work without human intervention at all. The first type is often referred to as a Desktop OS, while the second type is a Real-Time OS

For example, it is the operating system include Windows, Linux, Free BSD, Solaris, palm, symbian, and so on.
[Edit] a common core services
Along with the development of operating systems, more and more services become the core public service. Now, the OS may need to provide network and Internet connectivity, which was not a common core services. Operating systems also need to keep the damage to a computer system from interference destructive programs from other computers, such as viruses. List of common core services will continue to grow.

Programs communicate with each other with Application Programming Interface, Application Programming Interface or API abbreviated. With the API is an application program to communicate with the Operating System. As human beings communicate with computers through a user interface, the program also communicate with other programs via the API.

However a computer is not powerful API entirely to programs that run on the operating platform. For example, if a program created for Windows 3.1 when run on Windows 95 and later generations will see a striking difference between the program window with other programs.
[Edit] Operating System currently
Operating system-the major operating systems commonly used computer systems (including PC, personal computer) are divided into 3 major groups:
1. Family Microsoft Windows - which is comprised of the Windows Desktop Environment (version 1.x to version 3.x), Windows 9x (Windows 95, 98, and Windows ME), and Windows NT (Windows NT 3.x, Windows NT 4.0 , Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, Windows 7 (Seven), which was released in 2009, and Windows Orient to be released in 2014)).
2. Unix family of operating systems that use the POSIX interface, such as SCO UNIX, families BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution), GNU / Linux, MacOS / X (based on a modified BSD kernel, and is known by the name of Darwin) and GNU / Hurd.
3. Mac OS, an operating system for Apple's computers which is called Mac or Macintosh. The newest operating system is Mac OS X version 10.4 (Tiger). Beginning in 2007 planned launch of version 10.5 (Leopard).
While mainframe computers, and the Super Computer operating systems use a lot of different, usually a derivative of the UNIX operating system developed by vendors such as IBM AIX, HP / UX, etc..
[Edit] The process
The processor executes computer programs. The processor is a chip in the computer system running the computer program instructions. In every second the processor can execute millions of instructions.
The program is a series of instructions given to a computer. While the process is a part of the program that are in a particular status in the execution sequence. In the discussion of the operating system, we often discuss the process compared to the program. In modern operating system, at a time not all programs loaded in memory, but only one part of the program. While other parts of the program remains rest in the disk storage media. Only in times of need alone, part of the program is loaded in memory and executed by the processor. This is to save memory consumption.
Some systems run only a single process at a time, while others run multi-process at a time. Though most of the computer system has only one processor, and the processor can only execute one instruction at a time. So how does a single-processor system can run multi-process? Surely, in a very small granularity, the processor executes only one process at a time, then quickly he moved to run other processes, and so on. So for vision and feeling human user, as if the processor run multiple processes simultaneously.
Each process in an operating system to get a PCB (Process Control Block) that contains information about the process, namely: an identification process (Process ID) and a unique identification number, the status of the process, process execution priorities and process location information in memory . Priority of the process is a value or quantity that indicates how often the process should be executed by the processor. The process that has a higher priority, it will run more frequently or executed earlier than the lower-priority processes. An operating system can only determine all processes with the same priority, so that each process has an equal opportunity. An operating system can also change the priority value of a particular process, that process will be able to have a greater chance at the next execution (for example: the process that was already too long waiting for execution, the operating system raise the value of priority).
[Edit] Status Process
Types of status that may be embedded in a process on any operating system may vary. But there are at least three kinds of status are common, namely:
1. Ready, the state where the process is ready to be executed on the next turn
2. Running, the status of which is currently being executed by the processor
3. Blocked, the state where the process can not be executed when the processor is ready / free
[Edit] See also
• Haiku
• Linux
• Unix
• Windows
[Edit] External links
• Introduction to Computer Operating Systems Linux Kernel Plus Case Studies Digital Community Mutual Assistance (MDGR).
• Operaing System
• Collection of Open-Content Textbook: Wikibooks: Operating System Design
[Hide]
l • b • s
The operating system

Kernel
Microkernel, monolithic kernel, Kernel hybrid, space kernel, kernel modules, nanokernel, device drivers, user space, Userland


Management process
Process (computer), Multiprogramming, Interrupt, Protected mode, Supervisor mode, Computer multitasking, process management, Scheduling (computer), context switches, Cooperative multitasking, Preemptive multitasking, CPU modes


Memory management Memory protection, Segmentation, Paging, Memory management unit, Segmentation fault, General protection fault


AmigaOS example, Microsoft Windows, Linux, GNU, UNIX, Mac OS, MS-DOS


Other concepts Boot loader, API, VFS, Computer network, GUI, History of operating systems, the HAL

NAIL PLANT

NAIL PLANT

(Pteridophyta)

Ferns (Pteridophyta) is the division of the kingdom Plantae whose members have roots, stems, and true leaves, and has a carrier vessel. Ferns often called kormofita berspora as it pertains to the roots, stems, leaves, true, and reproduce asexually by spores. Ferns are also known as vascular plant (Tracheophyta) because it has a carrier vessel.
A. The characteristics of ferns
Characteristics ferns include the size, shape, structure, and function of the body
The size and shape of the body
Ferns have sizes varying from a height of about 2 cm, for example in the living ferns floating in the water, until the ferns that live on land that reaches 5 m pole eg spikes (Sphaeropteris). Ancient ferns that have become fossilized reaching an estimated height of 15 m. Forms ferns alive today vary, there are sheet-shaped, shrubs or trees, and there were like deer antlers.
Ferns consists of two generations, the sporophyte generation and the gametophyte generation. Sporophyte generation and the gametophyte generation is growing alternately in cycles tumbuahan nails. Sporophyte generation is a plant that produces spores while the gametophyte generation plants producing cells are gametes (sex cells). In ferns, the sporophyte generation is larger and lives longer than the gametophyte generation. Therefore, ferns sporophyte generation is called the dominant generation. Sporophyte generation is what we commonly refer to as ferns.
Structure and function of the body ferns sporophyte generation
Sporophyte ferns generally have roots, stems, and true leaves. However, there are some types that do not have true roots and leaves. There ferns stems that grow under the ground called the dried rhizome and there is growing above the soil surface. Stems that grow on the ground there menggarpu branched and unbranched straight there. Ferns that do not have the real roots of the roots have the form rizoid contained in dried rhizome or stem base. There were leafy ferns small (mikrofil) and there is a large leafy (makrofil). Small leafy ferns, leaves form of scales. Ferns leaves contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Chlorophyll ferns that no leaves or small leaves are on the stem.
Sporophyte ferns have a sporangium that produces spores. In the sporophyte plant species are leafless spikes, sporangiumnya located along the stem. In the leafy ferns, sporangiumnya lies in the fertile leaves (sporofil). The leaves do not contain sporangium called sterile leaves (tropofil). Sporofil there is a form strands and shaped Strobilus there. Strobilus is a combination of several sporofil that form a cone-like structures at the tips of the branches. In sporofil shaped strands, forming clusters sporangium sorus. Sorus protected by a membrane called indisium. Most ferns have vascular phloem and xylem transport form. Phloem is organic nutrient transport vessels of photosynthesis. Xylem is a transport vessel inorganic compounds such as water and minerals from the roots to all parts of the plant. Sporophyte produces spores that will grow to form a heart-shaped structure called the gametophyte or protaliaum protalus.
Structure and function of the body of the gametophyte generation of ferns
Gametophyte ferns measuring only a few millimeters. Most ferns have a heart-shaped gametophyte called protalus. Protalus form sheet, has rizoid on the bottom, and has a chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Protalus free life without relying on the sporophyte for nutritional requirements. Gametophyte certain types of ferns that do not have the chlorophyll can not photosynthesize. Ferns food without chlorophyll obtained by symbiosis with fungi.
Gametophyte have the sexual reproduction. Male reproductive organs are anteridium. Anteridium produce spermatozoid berflagelum. Reproductive females is arkegonium. Arkegonium produce ova. Certain types of ferns gametophyte has two kinds of reproductive organs in the same individual. Gametophyte with two types of reproduction called bisexual gametophyte. Gametophyte that have only anteridium alone or arkegonium just called called gametophyte uniseksual. Bisexual gametophyte produced by heterospora nails (nails that produces two different types of spores).
B. Living and Habitat Plant Spikes
Fotoautotrof ferns are plants. No one living ferns floating in the water (eg Azolla pinnata and Marsilea crenata). However, in general, ferns are terrestrial plants (land plants).
C. Reproduction
Ferns reproduce asexually and sexually. Asexual and sexual reproduction in plants such as the spikes occurred in moss. Reproduction ferns showed a rotation between generations gametophyte and sporophyte generations (metagenesis). In ferns, the sporophyte generation is the dominant generation in the life cycle.
Gametophyte generation produced by asexual reproduction by spores. Spores produced by spores stem cell division that occurs in the sporangium. Sporangium contained in the sporophyte (sporogonium) located on the leaves or stems. Haploid spores (n) generated blown by the wind and if it gets in the appropriate place would be protalus and further grow into a haploid gametophyte (n).
Gametophyte has two types of reproduction, namely anteridium and arkegonium, or one type of reproduction, namely anteridium alone or arkegonium only. Arkegonium produce an ovum which haploid (n). Anteridium produced many berflagelum spermatozoid are haploid (n). Spermatozoid intermediate water moving towards the ovum in arkegonium. Spermatozoid then fertilize the ovum. Fertilization of an ovum by a spermatozoid in arkegonium produce a diploid zygote (2n). Zygote divides and grows into an embryo (2n). The embryo grows into a diploid sporophyte (2n). Metagenesis ferns can be seen from the diagram metagenesis ferns, as follows:
Metagenesis Plant Spikes
Arkegonium (n)
Spores (n)
Mitosis
Protalus or protalium (n)
(Gametophyte)
Anteridium (n)
Egg (n)
Spermatozoid (n)
Zygote (2n)
Ferns (2n)
(Sporophyte)
Sporangium
Spores (n)
Meiosis
D. Classification
Based on the type of spores produced, ferns can be divided into three, namely:
1. Nails Homospora,
Homospora nails are the type of ferns that produce spores of the same kind of big. Examples are wire nails (Lycopodium)
2. Nails Heterospora
Heterospora nails are nails that plants produce two types of spores of different sizes. Large spores called makrospora (female gametes), while a small spores called microspores (male gametes). An example is the nail rane (Selaginella) and clover (Marsilea).
3. Nails Transition
Nails transition is a kind of ferns that produce spores with the same shape and size, as well as the unknown male and female gametes. An example is the transition ferns Horsetail (Equisetum)
Based on the characteristics of the body, ferns are classified into four subdivisions, namely ancient nails (Psilopsida), wire nails (Lycopsida), Paku horses (Sphenopsida), and a real nail (Pteropsida).
1. Ancient spikes (Psilopsida)
Ancient ferns that are still alive today is estimated only 10 species to 13 species of these two genera. Nails ancient life in the tropics and subtropics. Sporophyte ancient nails there who do not have true roots and has no true leaves.
Ancient nails that have a generally small leaves (mikrofil) and shaped scales. Stem branched spikes ancient dichotomy with the high reaching 30 cm to 1 m. Ancient nails also do not have transport vessels. Ancient fern stems contain chlorophyll so that it can perform photosynthesis. Branches and stems containing a set of sporangium mikrofil located along the trunk branch. Sporofil ancient nails produce one type spores (homospora). Gametofitnya not have chlorophyll and contains anteridium and arkegonium. Gametophyte nail ancient symbiosis with fungi to obtain nutrients. Examples of ancient ferns are ancient leafless spikes (Rhynia) and small-leaved ancient nails (Psilotum).
2. Wire nails (Lycopsida)
Wire nails includes 1,000 species of ferns, particularly of the genus Lycopodium and Selaginella. Wire nails grow in the forests of the tropics and subtropics. Wire nails stuck in a tree or live freely in the soil. A wire nails have roots, stems, and true leaves. Leaves small wire ferns and compact. Sporangium contained in structured form sporofil Strobilus on the rod tip. Strobilus shaped like a cone on a pine cone. Therefore, wire nail called ground pine. At spikes rane (Selaginella) sporangium consists of two types, namely mikrosporangium and megasporangium. Mikrosporangium found on mikrosporofil (leaves containing mikrosporangium). Mikrosporangium produce microspores that will grow into a male gametophyte. Megasporangium found on megasporofil (leaves containing megasporangium). Megasporangium produce megaspore that will grow into a female gametophyte.
Gametophyte wire nails small and lacking chlorophyll. Gametophyte obtain food from a symbiotic fungus dengannnya. Gemetofit wire nails was uniseksual, which contains only or arkegonium anteridium only. Gametophyte wire nails was also bisexual, which contains anteridium and arkegonium. Uniseksual gametophyte found in Selaginella. Selaginella is heterospora ferns while bisexual gametophyte found in Lycopodium.
3. Horse tail spikes (Sphenopsida)
Horsetail is currently only live about 25 species of one genus, Equisetum ie. Equisetum mainly live in moist habitats in temperate regions. Equisetum highest reaches only 4.5 m while the average height of less than 1 m Equisetum. Equisetum have roots, stems, and true leaves. Segmented trunk and surrounded on every ruasnya small scale-like leaves. Horsetail Equisetum called because the shape of the trunk like a ponytail. The crackers were hard due siliceous cell wall. Sporangium contained on Strobilus. Sporangium produces a single type of spore, so Equisetum classified at intermediate ferns. Equisetum gametophyte is only a few millimeters in size but can carry out photosynthesis. Gametofitnya contains arkegonium anteridium and so it is a bisexual gametophyte.

4. True Nails (Pteropsida)
True Nails nails include plant species that we see most often. Place a real nail grows mostly on land in the tropics and subtropics. True Nails estimated 12,000 Filicinae types of classes. Filicinae have roots, stems, and true leaves. Rods can be either in the trunk (dried rhizome) or stem above ground. Leaves Filicinae generally large and have branched veins. Young leaves have a characteristic that is growing roll (circinnatus). Types of nails, including nail that is true clover (Marsilea crenata), Paku deer antlers (Platycerium bifurcatum), bird's nest fern (Asplenium nidus), maidenhair ferns (Adiantum cuneatum), Paku fields (Azolla pinnata), and Dicksonia antarctica.
E. Benefits of Plants Nails
Several types of ferns can diamanfaatkan for the benefit of humans. Types of ferns that can be used ie clover (Marsilea crenata) is eaten as a vegetable, nail rane (Selaginella plana) as a remedy to heal wounds, Spikes fields (Azolla pinnata) as green manure crops in the rice paddy, maidenhair ferns (Adiantum cuneatum) and spike deer (Platycerium bifurcatum) as

History of Mount Merapi since 700 000 years ago.

History of Mount Merapi since 700 000 years ago.

Hot clouds, the nature of the eruption of Mount Merapi, Yogyakarta.
Of course, to avoid the dangers and take advantage of boondoggle is not only necessary when in need of it. The story of the history of Mount Merapi is also interesting to note as a common knowledge for us volcanologist. Below is the article from the Geological Agency of the history of Mount Merapi in October 2010 it was turbulent.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
The results show the history of the formation of Merapi stratigraphy is very complex. Wirakusumah (1989) Geology Merapi split into two major groups, namely Merapi Merapi Young and Old. Subsequent research (Berthomier, 1990; Newhall & Bronto, 1995; Newhall et.al, 2000) found stratigraphic units at an increasingly detailed Merapi. According Berthommier, 1990 based on stratigraphic studies, the history of Merapi can be divided into 4 parts:
PRA MERAPI (+ 400,000 years ago)
Referred to as Mount Bibi with andesitic-basaltic magma ± 700,000 years old located on the eastern slopes of Merapi including Boyolali. Volcanic rocks are andesitic-basaltic aunt but do not contain orthopyroxen. Bibi has a peak elevation of about 2050 m above sea level with the flat distance between the peak and the peak of Merapi Bibi is now about 2.5 km. Due to the very old age Gunung Bibi experiencing strong alteration so hard to find fresh rock samples.
MERAPI OLD (60000-8000 years ago)
During this nascent known as Mount Merapi, which is the initial phase of the formation with the cone is not perfect. Extrusion originally a basaltic lava that forms Mount Turgo and Plawangan approximately 40,000 years old. Product activity consists of basaltic andesite rocks with a composition of awanpanas, brecciation of lava and lava.
MERAPI MIDDLE (8000 - 2000 years ago)
There were some andesitic lava that make up hills and Gajahmungkur Batulawang, which currently visible on the northern slopes of Merapi. The rock consists of lava flows, brecciation of lava and hot clouds. Merapi activity is characterized by effusive eruptions (melt) and explosive. Explosive eruption is also expected to "de ¬ bris-avalanche" westbound leaving the horses hooves morphology with a length of 7 km, width of 1-2 miles with some hills on the western slope. In this period Pasarbubar crater formed.
NEW MERAPI (2000 years ago - present)
In the crater of Merapi summit cone formed Pasarbubar currently referred to as Mount Anyar is currently a central activity of Merapi. Bedrock of Old Merapi Merapi was estimated. While Merapi currently about 2000 years old. Great eruption of Merapi in the past that the distribution of the material has been covered Sambisari located ± 23 km south of Merapi. Stratigraphic study conducted by Andreastuti (1999) have shown that several major eruption, the eruption index (VEI) of about 4, Plinian type, have occurred in the past. The last major eruption with a wide distribution of tephra produced Selokopo going around about 500 years ago. Smaller explosive eruptions observed predicted 250 years ago that produced a tephra Pasarbubar. Schematic cross-section of the geological history of Merapi according Berthommier, 1990 (right image).
Map showing the distribution of sediment awanpanas Merapi 1911-2006. Only the eastern slopes of the free flow directions awapanas in that time.
HISTORY eruption
Type of eruption can be categorized as a type of weak Vulkanian. Another type as Plinian (eg eruption of Vesuvius in 79) is a type of eruption vulkanian with a very strong power. Merapi Eruption however not so explosive pyroclastic flows almost always occur in every eruption. Visually activity of Merapi eruption seen through a long process since it began with the formation of a lava dome, and awanpanas incandescent lava (pyroclastic flow).
Including Merapi volcano erupts frequently. As of June 2006, recorded eruptions has reached 83 times the incident. On average interval Merapi eruption occurred between 2-5 years (short period), while the medium over that time period every 5-7 years. Merapi had experienced the longest period of rest for> 30 years, especially in the early days of its existence as a volcano. Entering the 16th century recorded the activities of Merapi began well enough. At times it appears that the longest break ever achieved for 71 years when the gap between the year 1587 until the year 1658.
Evolution of Mount Merapi
Historical eruptions of Mount Merapi began to be recorded (written) since the year 1768. However, history is more detailed chronology of the recent eruption was in the late 19th century. There is a tendency that the more frequent eruptions of the 20th century than in the 19th century. This can happen karenapencatatan an event in the 20th century are relatively more detail. Monitoring also was active volcanoes done since the early 20th century. During the 19th century eruption occurred around 20, which means the interval Merapi eruptions on average every five years. The eruption in 1872 is regarded as the last and the biggest eruption of the 19th century and 20 have produced Mesjidanlama crater with a diameter of between 480-600m. The eruption lasted for five days and is classified in class D. Loud pop sound to filigree, Madura and Bawean. Awanpanas runs through almost all of the upstream rivers in the peak of Merapi is Apu, Trising, Senowo, Blongkeng, Trunk, Woro, and Gendol.
Awanpanas and product material eruption destroyed all the villages that are above elevation 1000m. At that time the crater rim has happened elevation 2814m (; compared to the current peak of Merapi is located at an elevation of 2968m). Of events in the distant past eruptions, changes in body morphology in mountain formed by lava tongue and a relatively larger eruption. Mount Merapi is a young volcano. Several previous article mentioned that before Merapi, there are already more dahuiu Mount Bibi (2025m), north-eastern slopes of Mount Merapi. However, it is unknown whether the current volcanic activity that took place on the mountain Bibi. From the tests conducted, G. Bibi has a life of about 400,000 years mean age Merapi younger than 400,000 years. After the formation of Mount Merapi, G. Aunt partially buried so that now only partially visible peak. The next period is the formation of hills and Plawangan Turgo the inception of Mount Merapi. Tests showed that both the hill was about a maximum of 60,000 years (Berthomrnier, 1990). The two hills dominating the morphological southern slopes of Mount Merapi.
At higher elevations there is lava units Gajahmungkur hill, Pusunglondon and Batulawang located on the upper slopes of Merapi body. The composition of the hills are formed later than on, 6700 years ago (Berthommier, 1990). These data indicate that the structure of the upper body of Merapi recently formed in the order of thousands of years ago. Pasarbubar crater is active crater at the center of activity before the formation of the peak of Merapi.
It is estimated that the peak of Merapi is in the newly formed Pasarbubar started about 2000 years ago. It is obvious that the body mount Merapi higher and higher and higher with the rapid increase seen only a few thousand years ago. Body peak of Mount Merapi as the location of the active crater is now a part of the youth of Mount Merapi. Aperture crater happens once took different directions with varying direction of eruption. However, most of the eruption leads to the south, west to the north. At the height of the active lava dome formed and sometimes shattered by the explosion. Active crater of Merapi change from time to time in accordance with the eruption. The growth of the lava dome always fill weak zones can be a gap between the old and the lava in the crater of an active lava earlier this dome growth ciapat also preceded by eruptions or after eruption. If this case happens, then dismantling the old lava dome could occur by forming a new crater and a new lava dome growing in the crater of the eruption. Besides charging or dome growth can occur in the body of the lava dome before or at the boundary between the old crater wall with lava before. So it is not surprising that at the peak of Merapi eruption kawahkawah varying size and location. The distribution of the eruption also affects the changes in morphology, especially in the lip of the crater and upper slopes. Center landslide that occurred at the peak of Merapi, on the body of the lava dome is usually at the bottom of which is a result of terdistribusikannya pressure at the bottom because the top is still strong enough for the weight of the material.
As with the bottom of the result of the pressure causing weak zones which gave glowing centers. When filling a gap either by the growth of the dome is still limited in number, the direction of lava can still be controlled in a gap in the vicinity. However, if the cracks are beginning to fill up, there will be deviations dome growth. So that the nature of the lava dome growing sideways (ie, the period from 1994 to 1998) will result in a change of direction eruption. These changes can also occur in a relatively short period of time and from the same lava dome. The growth of the lava dome has grown from symmetric to asymmetric shaped lava tongue. If the continuous growth and speed are not the same, then the lava tongue will begin to form a wavy morphology that eventually become parallel to each other but still in one body. Chronology of growth at some point will reach a tipping point and cause avalanches or avalanche deviant dome. The chronology of this kind observed in th 1943 (April to May 1943).
Stacking of new materials in the area of ​​the peak effect of dome growth mainly comes from changes in the maximum height of the peak of Merapi. Several eruptions in history have transformed morphology among others eruption peak generating periods 18221823 600m diameter crater, the period from 1846 to 1848 (200m), the period of 1849 (250 - 400m), the period from 1865 to 1871 (250m), from 1872 to 1873 (480 - 600 m), 1930, 1961.

History of the World Tsunami

History of the World Tsunami

This article is taken from the Space Magazine Special Edition The Deadliest Tsunami Wave 2005. And it says here only recorded until 1960.Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (65 Million BC)Based on the relics and traces were found, about 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, there has been a large meteorite impact in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Trail left roughly along the Gulf of Mexico and the U.S.. therefore the meteorite likely may be an area WashingtonDC.While the legacy of which still can be seen is a few chunks of sandstone at the top of the hill in the area of ​​Arkansas. Located about 120 kilometers north-east of Little Rock.Santorini, Greece (1650-1600 BC)Note that Santorini is a volcanic island in the Aegean Sea, about 75 km south-east of Greece. Between 1650 and 1600 BC, the mountain here reportedly erupted danmemicu tsunami as high as 100-150 m. Hempasannya destroy the north coast of the island of Crete as far as 70 km, ternasuk Minoan fleet along the northern coast of the island of Crete.Lisbon, Portugal (1755)The quake triggered a tsunami in the Atlantic Ocean. Until such a great cause fires in various regions. The death toll reached 100,000 people or more than a third of Lisbon.This disaster untukpertama time to leave a note of the phenomena associated with many animals. They are thought to sense danger and scattered before the tsunami came.Krakatau, Indonesia (August 26, 1883)Krakatau was once a volcanic island in the Sunda Strait. On August 26, 1883 this island erupted and caused incredible disasters. The explosion estimated to be equivalent to 200 megatons of TNT that destroyed most of the island, and even disappeared from the surface of the sea. Tsunamis diperkiran intensity, with wave heights of over 40 meters. death toll from the eruption is about 36 thousand people, but who died of floor depth is unknown. Tsunamis spread to the mainland of Java and Sumatra, and even reached the Indian Ocean, the Pacific, North America, U.S. west coast, as well as the English Channel. There are manuscripts of this incident in the kompas.com loh ...Japan (1605-1993)Japan is the most frequent case of a tsunami, the following notes,Nankaido 1605 hit, killed 5,000 people1703 hit Awa, about 100 thousand people melelanin the same year also hit areas Tokaido-Kashima, killing 5233 people.1707 hit-Nankaido Tokaido area, killing 30 thousand people1771 hit Ryukyu region, killing 13,486 people1792 hit southwestern Kyushu, killing 15 thousand people1829 is not known which areas hit but killed 27 thousand peopleCrashing Sanriku 1896 approximately 20,000 people were killed in this incidentHit the 1933 Sanriku killed 3008 peopleSweeping Onagawa 1960, killing 122 people1993 Okushiri crashing, killing 202 people.Notes on the History of the World TsunamiAugust 27, 1883: Indonesian volcano Krakatoa erupted, and the tsunami that swept the coasts of Java and Sumatra, killing 36,000 people. Volcanic eruptions are really powerful so long nights sky glowing red lava due to dust.June 15, 1896: "Sanriku Tsunami" hit Japan. Tsunamis are giant altitude 23 meters swept the crowd that gathered in celebration of religion and swallow 26,000 casualties.December 17, 1896: Tsunami damage the embankment of Santa Barbara in California, USA, and caused flooding on the main highway.January 31, 1906: An earthquake in the Pacific Ocean destroyed part of the city of Tumaco in Colombia, including the entire house on the beach that lies between Micay Rioverde in Ecuador and Colombia; 1,500 people died.1 April 1946: The tsunami that destroyed the Scotch Cap lighthouse on the Aleutian Islands and her five guards, moving towards Hilo, Hawaii, killing 159 people.May 22 1960: altitude 11 meters Tsunami kills 1,000 people in Chile and 61 in Hawaii. Giant wave crossed to the Pacific coast and rocked the Philippines and the island of Okinawa in Japan.March 28, 1964: Tsunami "Good Friday" in Alaska eliminate the three villages of the map, with 107 people killed, and 15 people died in Oregon and California.August 16, 1976: A Pacific tsunami killed 5,000 people in the Moro Gulf, Philippines.July 17, 1998: The ocean waves caused by the earthquake that occurred in Papua New Guinea killed 2,313 people, destroyed 7 villages and caused thousands of people homeless.December 26, 2004: An earthquake measuring 8.9 on the Richter scale and giant wave that hit six countries in Southeast Asia killed more than 156,000 people.


History of Tsunami in IndonesiaTEMPO Interactive, Jakarta: An earthquake the Indian Ocean with the power of 6.8 on the Richter scale, Sunday (26/12) morning, including the earthquake in Aceh and North Sumatra, triggering a tsunami wave in some Asian countries.
Tsunami waves are expected at the most casualties. At least the victims died in Aceh and North Sumatra, as well as some other Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand has reached thousands of people.
Victims of the earthquake and tsunami in Indonesia, until the news was revealed, remains uncertain. However, until 17:30 pm, the National Coordinating Board noted that there are about 148 dead. While the number of wounded and missing is not yet known.
The earthquake and tsunami in Indonesia does not only happen this time. Previously, a similar event has happened many times and caused fatalities is not small. The tsunami waves that caused the most deaths were reported during the incident volcanic eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. At that time, an estimated 36 thousand people died from the eruption building resulting in waves as high as 12 levels. The waves caused by the eruption of the volcano, located in the Sunda Strait was reached about 120 kilometers from the center of eruption.
After the eruption of Krakatoa, since at least during the period 1900-1996, there has been at least 17 major tsunami in Indonesia. Fifteen of them occurred in eastern Indonesia, which is known as an active and complex seismotectonic region. The tsunami caused by seismic activity contained in the active zones seismmotektonik as subduction zones, zone openings and fault zones are spread throughout much of the Indonesian archipelago.
Huge tsunami wave that also claimed that no less frequent in August 19, 1977 in the Sumba. In the event around 189 lives lost. Then, a similar event occurred in 12 Disember 1992 in Flores. This huge wave of 2100 resulted in lives lost. Seawater spill events yan hit Banyuwangi East Java region on June 3, 1994 killed up to 208 people were killed.
Five of the tsunami (Banda 1938, Sigli 1967, Bandanaira 1975, Sumba 1977, and Banyuwangi 1994) was due to the activity of the subduction zone located Sunda-Banda extends from the Andaman Islands to the Banda Sea.
Activity reverse fault zone which extends from north of Bali lies to Alor produced three Ende tsunami in 1908, Larantuka 1982, and Flores 1992. Tsunamis that occurred in Tinambung sub 1967, Central Sulawesi, 1968 Majene 1969, and 1984 due to the activity zone Mamujuopenings are located in the Makassar Strait.
Activity Palu-Koro fault zone and fault shoves through Palu, north to the southern island of Buru Biak has resulted in four tsunami that occurred in the Gulf Tomini 1938, Sana 1965 Maluku, Maluku Sanana, 1975 and Toli-Toli 1996.Meanwhile, the tsunami that occurred recently in Biak, estimated by the action of Sorong fault or plate subduction Carolina.The tsunami that occurred in Indonesia caused by earthquakes and strong shallow occurring in the seabed. These earthquakes have depths varying between 13 and 95 km, magnitude 5.9 to 7.5 magnitude, earthquake intensity between VII to IX MMI scale (Mo-dified Mercalli Intensity), and the type of earthquake is the dominant pensesaran reverse fault. The maximum tsunami wave height reaches shore ranged from four to 24 meters, with the tsunami magnitude between 1.5 and 4.5 in the scale Imamura. Meanwhile, the tsunami waves to reach the mainland ranges from 50 to 200 meters from the shoreline.

The characteristics of the soil in Indonesia

The characteristics of the soil in Indonesia

The characteristics of the soil can be explained as follows:
1) Have a thickness of more than 50 cm. Land as contained in the flat to undulating. The land terbantuk of rock weathering caused by factors such as alluvial sedimentation. The land has a horizon A to C or O horizon forest areas have to C.
2) In areas that have a slope as steep slopes rather thin soil thickness. Thin thickness of the soil in this area due to erosion or erosion by rainwater that falls on the slopes of the mountains.
3) color of the soil in Indonesia varied as black, red, gray, brown or a mixture. Red and brown soil is influenced by iron and high oxidation rate. ground gray areas contained in draenasenya always flooded (very good). The soil is red and has a good draenase Fe oxides conditions.
4) chemical composition of the soil is sometimes different from its parent rock due to the oxide, hydrolysis process,
(A) The process of oxidation is a chemical reaction that causes loss of electrons (negative charge) either through the addition of oxygen and without oxygen. The process of oxidation occurs because rocks contain iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn).
(B) The process of hydraulic rock mediated by the results of the ionization of water that serves as a weak acid into H + ions (acid reaction) and OH (reaction base).
(C) The process is a process of acidification osiladisis function accelerates the weathering of rock.
(D) The process of dissolution is the natural process of dissolution by water.
5) On-prone areas are like Borneo, eastern Sumatra, and Papua southern bgian formed acid sulfate soil and peat (historal) formed from organic material. This land needs to be made in raklamasi before agricultural land by making the channel setting to eliminate toxic elements for plants.
6) Soil texture in Indonesia varied, ranging from coarse to fine texture.
(A) such as soil texture is coarse sand, clay sand.
(B) somewhat rough texture like tnah sandy loam.
(C) The texture is not rough and not slippery like clay.
(D) Fine texture like clay dust.


7) On the island of Java and a few places outside Java such as North Sulawesi and South Sulawesi, there are soils derived from volcanic material. This land around the volcano and there is generally a fertile soil because it contains minerals that are easily weathered and rich in nutrients such as K, Ca, Mg, and so on.
Outside the island of Java is found that soils derived from marine sedimentary rock parent materials are very old, such as clay rocks da old limestone.


SOIL FORMATION PROCESS
The process of soil formation begins with the weathering of rock weathering, both physical and chemical weathering. Of the weathering process, the rock will become soft and change its composition. At this stage the weathered rock is not considered a soil, but the soil material (ragolith) because it still shows the structure of the parent rock weathering process continues until finally bahaninduk land turned into soil. So the factors that drive weathering also plays a role in soil formation. What are those factors?
Rainfall and sunshine instrumental in the physical weathering processes, both factors are components of the climate that can be summed up one of the factors is iklm soil formation. Is that just two factors that affect soil formation? There are other factors that influence soil formation processes that organisms, topography and time the parent material. These factors can be formulated as follows:
T = F (i.o.b.t.w) ket: T = ground
f = factor
i = Climate
b = parent material
t = topographic
w = time
A. by bahn parent home soil
The rock is the origin of soil parent materials can be divided into four, namely as berukut:
1) igneous
These rocks formed from magma that freezes. can be divided into frozen rock on, rock material and rock in the alley
2) Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are sedimentary rocks. These rocks consist of:
A) old rock deposits, a marine sediment-old old (millions of years).
Example:
- Limestone rocks (limestone) that contains rust sea.
- Sandstone contains quartz sand (SiO2)
B) new sediment material (not to stone)
This material is deposited by water and wind. Materials deposited by water terdapatdi alluvial plains or flood plains, while the material in endapkan by angina are on the coast, mountain areas and so on.


3) rock metemorf
rocks derived from igneous and sedimentary due Setra pressure and high-temperature long time, transformed into other types of rock such as limestone to marble.

4) host rock organic
Organic soils or peat swamp forest are always flooded. The process of organic material penghancuiran run slower than on the process of accumulation, resulting in the accumulation of organic material to form organic soil or peat. For example, in Borneo, eastern Sumatra, and the southern part of Papua.

B. Based pedogenesisnya
Based pedogenesisnya, soil formation process is divided into two, as follows:
1) Transfer form (transformation)
This process takes time and is caused by weathering, dokomposisi (change) and humifiksi organic material (humus land change process). All of these processes contribute to the formation of soils derived from parent materials mineraldan organic. This process runs in stages giving rise to a real distinction t5anah horizon. An example is the accumulation of humus in the soil surface.
2) Transfer the place
This process is associated with changes in the body and mixing soil resulting in the development of the soil profile. The main cause is the percolation (infiltration of water into the ground), erosion, evapotranspiration (combination of evaporation of water through the body of water and vegetation) and the stagnation of water (water's silence on the soil pores or cracks in the soil specific) and human activities, and soil fauna. Translocation shows the displacement at a longer distance (mm to m). example is the movement of clay minerals, salts of alkali with water percolation, displacement humic compounds in the form of soluble compounds and soil erosion due to water movement in the soil surface.

C) Based on the weathering process
Based pelapukannya process, the process of land pembentuikan divided into three, namely physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.
1) physical weathering
Physical weathering is a mechanical process that causes massive rocks disintegrate into small particles without any chemical change. This process is due to a drastic change in sushu, rain, tree roots, and the activity of living organisms. Consequently crushed rock and turned into the soil. An example is the volcanic soil and the soil pedsolik.

2) Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is a process of change in chemical composition and mineral constituent rock fragments. Examples of chemical weathering is the entry of rain water that contains chemical elements into the limestone causing cracks formed limestone.


3) Biological Weathering
Biological weathering the weathering caused by living organisms. The destruction caused by an rock roots rock menenbus plants, and animals such as termites and earthworms. Consequently rocks turn into soil.